The first law of thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and that heat energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one location to another location or converted to one from to other forms of energy.
Whenever a system goes through any change due to the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, it is followed by numerous energy transfers and conversions. However, during these transfers, there is no net change in the total energy. Thus, according to first law of thermodynamics the energy of the universe remains the same. This is known as the principle of conservation of energy. Any gain in energy by the system will correspond to a loss in energy by the surroundings, or any loss in energy by the system will correspond to a gain in energy by the surroundings.
ΔE = q + w
ΔE - Change in internal energy
ΔE = Efinal - Einitial
A positive value of ΔE results when Efinal > Einitial, indicating that the system has gained energy from its surroundings. A negative value of ΔE results when Efinal < Einitial, indicating that the system has lost energy to its surroundings.
Endothermic and Exothermic Processes:
When a process occurs in which the system absorbs heat, the process is called endothermic (endo- means “into”). During an endothermic process, such as the melting of ice, heat flows into the system from its surroundings. If we, as part of the surroundings, touch a container in which ice is melting, the container feels cold to us because heat has passed from our hand to the container. A process in which the system loses heat is called exothermic (exo- means “out of”). During an exothermic process, such as the combustion of gasoline, heat exits or flows out of the system into the surroundings.
To understand the meaning of the first law, we can take the common example of a heat engine. In a heat engine, the thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy. Heat engines are mostly categorized as open systems. The basic working principle of a heat engine is that it makes use of the different relationships between heat, pressure and volume of a gas. A heat engine is a system which converts heat into work by taking heat from the reservoir (hot body) to carry out some work. There is a discharge of some heat to the sink (cold body). In this system, there will also be some waste in the form of heat.
A very basic diagram of the heat engine is given below:
The word ‘thermodynamics’ is derived from two words: thermo and dynamics. ‘Thermo’ stands for heat while ‘dynamics’ is used in connection with a mechanical motion which involves ‘work’.
Broadly speaking, thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with heat, work and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation and physical properties of matter. It explains how thermal energy (heat energy) is converted to other forms of energy and how matter is affected by this process.
Different Branches of Thermodynamics:
Classical Thermodynamics
Statistical Thermodynamics
Chemical Thermodynamics
Equilibrium Thermodynamics
In classical thermodynamics, temperature and pressure are taken into consideration, which helps us to calculate other properties and predict the characteristics of the matter undergoing the process.
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of how work and heat relate to each other in chemical reactions
and in changes of states.
THERMODYNAMIC TERMS AND BASIC CONCEPTS:
To study the basic concepts of thermodynamics it is important to study a few terms and definitions which must be understood clearly.
Thermodynamic Systems:
A system is that part of the universe which is under thermodynamic study and the rest of the
universe is surroundings. The real or imaginary surface separating the system from the
surroundings is called the boundary
There are three types of systems:
Open System –
In an open system, the mass and energy both may be transferred between the system and surroundings. A steam turbine is an example of an open system.
Closed System –
In the closed system, the transfer of energy takes place but the transfer of mass doesn’t take place. Refrigerator, compression of gas in the piston assembly, etc., are examples of closed systems.
Isolated System –
An isolated system cannot exchange energy and mass with its surroundings. The universe is considered an isolated system.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS:
The change of thermodynamic state from one condition to another condition ( change in temperature or pressure) is called thermodynamic process. One example of a thermodynamic process is increasing the temperature of a fluid while maintaining a constant pressure.
REVERSIBLE PROCESS:
A reversible process for a system is defined as a process that, once having taken place, can be reversed, and in so doing leaves no change in either the system or surroundings. In reality, there are no truly reversible processes. One way to make real processes approximate reversible process is to carry out the process in a series of small or infinitesimal steps.
For example, transferring heat across a temperature difference of 0.00001 °F "appears" to be more reversible than for transferring heat across a temperature difference of 100 °F. Therefore, by cooling or heating the system in a number of infinitesimally small steps, we can approximate a reversible process.
IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
An irreversible process is a process that cannot return both the system and the surroundings to their original conditions. That is, the system and the surroundings would not return to their original conditions if the process was reversed.
For example, an automobile engine does not give back the fuel it took to drive up a hill as it coasts back down the hill.
Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process that takes place at a constant temperature. It means that an isothermal process occurs in a system where the temperature remains constant. However, to keep the temperature of the system constant, heat must be transferred into the system or shifted out of the system.
In simple terms, in the isothermal process: T = constant. This implies, the change in temperature will be zero i.e., ΔT=0
Examples:
Melting and Evaporation, etc.
Working in the refrigerator is an isothermal process. The temperature of the surroundings changes irrespective of changes in the internal temperature of the refrigerator. Excess heat is removed and transmitted to the surrounding.
Adiabatic Process:
An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process that can take place without any heat transfer between a system and its surrounding. Here, neither heat nor energy is not transferred into or out of the system. Therefore, in an adiabatic process, the only way the energy transfer takes place between a system and its surroundings is the work.
Examples:
1. Release of air from a pneumatic tyre.
A pneumatic tire consists of an outer rubber layer, an inner chamber that contains compressed air and a tread pattern. This type of tire works by utilizing the air-filled chamber to provide cushioning and absorb shocks. Under a load, the tire compresses the air inside, distributing the weight evenly and reducing the impact on surfaces. The design allows for a smooth, stable ride, while the tread pattern on the tire provides grip and traction. The tire's flexibility and the pressurized air inside enable it to adapt to different terrains and surfaces. When a tyre bursts, the sudden release of the high-pressure air inside the tyre causes the air to rapidly expand. This rapid expansion of the gas occurs without any heat transfer to or from the surroundings, as the process happens too quickly for significant heat exchange to take place.
It is known that organic compounds can be derived from natural sources and these are mixed with other substances and are impure. Similarly compounds prepared in the laboratory are also mixed with other by products formed during the course of the reaction. To purify such compounds, various methods are adopted. Some of the common methods are as follows
Crystallization
Sublimation
Distillation
Extraction
Chromatography
In this post we are about to discuss two methods of purification. They are as follows.
Solvent Extraction:
Extraction means drawing (pulling out) a compound out of a mixture using a solvent. It means organic compounds have a "choice" of two solvents that they can dissolve in. It requires two solvents that are not miscible in each other. Usually one of the solvents is water. The other solvent is a liquid that does not dissolve very well in water, such as diethyl ether.
The process of removing organic substance from its aqueous solution by mixing with suitable organic solvent is termed solvent extraction. It is also called as liquid-liquid extraction and partitioning. It is an equilibrium process and is a convenient technique can be carried out using separating funnel.
Principle of Solvent Extraction
It is based on the fact that different substances have different solubility in different solvents.
Procedure:
The aqueous solution of the given solute (organic substance) is taken in a separating funnel. It is mixed with the organic solvent. The funnel is closed, and its contents are shaken well. It is then allowed to remain undisturbed for some time. Water and organic solvent will form separate layers, and the solute will be transferred from aqueous layer to the organic layer. In the funnel, the solvent forms the upper layer while the water forms the lower layer. The two layers can be recovered by opening the stop cock and collecting them in separate bakers. On evaporating the organic solvent, the solute can be recovered.
It is important to note that extraction is more efficient (i.e., higher purification) when the process is repeated. For example, benzoic acid can be extracted from its water solution using benzene.
It is based on the distribution law, also called the Nernst’s distribution law. It states that if a solute X distributes itself between two immiscible solvents A and B, at constant temperature and X is in the same molecular condition in both solvents, then
The constant 𝐾D (or simply K) is called the distribution coefficient or Partition coefficient or Distribution ratio.
Applications:
It is used in perfumes, vegetable oil, biodiesel processing, etc.
It is used to segregate hazardous contaminants from sludge and sediments.
In the petrochemical industry, it is used to separate and purify different components of crude oil.
It is used for the separation and purification of organic compounds.
It removes oil and grease that spilled into water. This helps clean up environmental pollution.
Crystallization:
It is a purification technique used to separate solids from a solution. In this method, the impurities are dissolved in a suitable solvent and then filtered to remove impurities.
Principle:
An impure organic solid is completely dissolved in a small amount of solvent by boiling. The hot solution is allowed to cool slowly. The impurities remain in the solution (called the "mother liquor") while the organic substance comes out as pure crystals . It is then filtered and dried.
Procedure:
Step 1: Take some water in a beaker
Step 2: Add organic substance (impure) and stir it
Step 3: Now heat the solution
Step 4: Add more impure substance.
Step 5: After some time there will be a point at which no more substance can be dissolved in water. This stage is the saturation point, and the solution is referred to as a saturated solution
Step 6: Now filter the substance with the help of a filter paper
Step 7: Collect the filtrate in a glass bowl and cool it slowly
Step 8: You will observe that some fine crystals are formed in the bowl
Step 9: The process of filtration can separate these crystals.
Selection of solvent:
(a) It dissolves more of the substance at higher temperature than at room temperature
(b) The impurities are either insoluble or dissolve in solution (in the mother liquor) upon crystallization,
(c) which is not highly inflammable and
(d) which does not react chemically with the compound to be crystallized.
The most commonly used solvents for crystallization are: water, alcohol, ether, chloroform, carbon- tetrachloride, acetone, benzene, petroleum ether etc.
Fractional crystallization:
The process of separation of different components of a mixture by repeated crystallizations is called fractional crystallization.
Examples:
(a) Sugar having an impurity of common salt can be crystallized from hot ethanol since sugar
dissolves in hot ethanol but common salt does not.
(b) A mixture of benzoic acid and naphthalene can be separated from hot water in which
Most of the time the substances that we see around us are not in their pure form. They are basically a mixture of two or more substances. Interestingly, mixtures tend to also come in different forms. Therefore, there are several types of separation techniques that are used in segregating a mixture of substances. As for the need for separation, it is usually done to remove all the unwanted materials and obtain useful components.
Methods Of Separating Mixtures:
Evaporation
Filtration or Sedimentation
Separating Funnel
Magnetic Separation
Evaporation
Evaporation is a technique that is used in separating a mixture, usually a solution of a solvent and a soluble solid. In this method, the solution is heated until the organic solvent evaporates where it turns into a gas and mostly leaves behind the solid residue.
Filtration or Sedimentation:
The most common method of separating a liquid from an insoluble solid is the filtration. Take, for example, the mixture of sand and water. Filtration is used here to remove solid particles from the liquid. Various filtering agents are normally used like filtering paper or other materials.
Separating Funnel
Separating funnel is used mainly to segregate two immiscible liquids. The mechanism involves taking advantage of the unequal density of the particles in the mixture. Oil and water can be easily separated using this technique.
Magnetic Separation:
When one substance in the mixture has some magnetic properties then this method is quite useful. Strong magnets are commonly used to separate magnetic elements.
Anesthesiology is an important branch of medicine as it makes surgery safe, feasible and possible. During and after surgery the patient feel the pain and discomfort hence they may be given anesthesia.
Anesthetic is basically a medicine that acts as a sedative. The term anesthesia means loss of sensation. It produces loss of sensation to all types of cells and especially those of nervous sysem.. The important aspect of anesthetics are the loss of consciousness is reversible.
Types:
1. General - complete loss of consciousness all over the body.
2. Local - lack of sensation in the area being operated on.
Ether:
The discovery of ether for the use as an anesthetic was in 1846 which marked the birth of a modern age in anesthesiology. The first true demonstration of ether as an inhalation anesthetic was on October 16, 1846 by William T.G. Morton, a Boston dentist. He discovered the anesthetic properties of ether in his search to provide patients with relief from painful dental procedures.
Preparation:
Advantages:
1. safe
2. does not modify blood pressure
3. economical
4. can be stored properly
Disadvantages:
1. induction of ether is slow
2. inflammable
3. recovery is slow.
Chloroform:
Chloroform or trichloromethane is an alkylchloride with the formula CHCl3. It is a very volatile, colorless, strong-smelling, dense liquid that serves as a powerful general anesthetic, and sedative.
Preparation:
Industrially, chloroform is produced by heating a mixture of chlorine and either methyl chloride (CH3Cl) or methane (CH4). At 400–500 °C, free radical halogenation occurs, converting these precursors to progressively more chlorinated compounds:
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl
Disadvantages:
The anesthetic use of chloroform has been discontinued, because it caused deaths from respiratory failure and cardiac arrhythmias. Following chloroform-induced anesthesia, some patients suffered nausea, vomiting, , jaundice, and coma owing to hepatic dysfunction.
Chloroform converts slowly in the presence of UV light and air to the extremely poisonous gas, phosgene (COCl2), releasing HCl in the process.
We know about sugars and it gives sweet taste in our food stuffs. Sugars are used in our everyday life. There are wide variety of sugar brands we know. In this post we are going to discuss about sweeteners.
What are sugars?
Sugars are carbohydrates, found naturally in most plants. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. All green plants make sugar through photosynthesis, the process plants use to transform the sun’s energy into food.
Where do we get sugars?
The most common sugar is sucrose in sugarcane and sugar beets.
malt syrup is derived by breaking down the starches in cooked rice.
Lactose is the naturally occurring form of sugar in milk products.
Fructose, a sugar found in fruits and honey.
What makes sugar sweet?
The sweetness of sugar comes from a chemical interaction between sugar molecules and sweet taste receptor cells, which are found in our taste buds of our tongue. Different types of sugars can have varying levels of sweetness. Fructose is the sweetest of all naturally occurring sugars.
Artificial Sweeteners:
Artificial sweeteners are chemically synthesized substances that are used instead of sucrose (natural sugar) to sweeten foods and beverages. They are many times sweeter than sugar and much smaller amounts (200 to 20,000 times less) are needed to create the same level of sweetness. The caloric content of sweeteners is very small, so it is described as nonnutritive.
It can be used directly in processed food such as puddings, dairy products, candy, soft drinks, baked goods, jams and many other foods and beverages.
Below is the list of some common artificial sweeteners commonly used.
1. Saccharin:
It was discovered in 1879 and is considered the oldest non-nutritive sweetener. It is about 300 times more sweet than sucrose, but it has a bitter aftertaste. It cannot be used in products where baking of food is necessary as it becomes unstable when it is heated. But it can be used to sweeten candies, drinks, and toothpaste.
Structure:
sodium ortho benzenesulphonamide
2. Aspartame:
In 1879 Aspartame was discovered and it was found that it is approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar. It is commonly used as a tabletop sweetener and is also used in a variety of foods. When it is heated it breaks down into amino acids and loses its sweetness, so it cannot be used for baked foods. It is only used in soft drinks and cold foods.
Cyclamate is an artificial sweetener and is about 30–50 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). It is the least potent of the commercially used artificial sweeteners. Hence, it is often used with other artificial sweeteners, especially saccharin. It is stable under heating.
cyclohexylsulfamate
Advantages of Artificial Sweeteners
Weight Control:
If we want to lose weight, then we should use an artificial sweetening agent as virtually it carries zero calories. One gram of sugar carries 4 calories, and one teaspoon of sugar contains about 4 grams of sugar. So by eating 1 teaspoon also we gain 16 calories. So in the case of weight control, an artificial sweetening agent is the best option.
Diabetes:
It also helps in controlling diabetes as it does not raise the blood sugar levels because it does not contain the carbohydrates in it.
This post is about polymerization using coordination complexes. Transition metal compounds along with group 13 halides are generally used as catalysts. The first catalyst of this type was Ziegler - Natta catalyst. Here the mechanism of this polymerization is discussed.
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